• 1 Installation instructions
• 2 Unix Shell
  • 2.1 Intro comments about "shell"
  • 2.2 Very brief Bash intro
• 3 Why are we here?
  • 3.1 Create and revisit a history of project snapshots
  • 3.2 Determine when a bug was introduced
  • 3.3 Git helps you…
• 4 Setup
  • 4.1 Inspect your configuration
  • 4.2 Identify yourself
  • 4.3 Line Endings
  • 4.4 Editor
  • 4.5 Updating remotes
  • 4.6 (Optional) Change name of default branch
• 5 Creating a repository
  • 5.1 Create a directory
  • 5.2 Tell Git to make a repository
  • 5.3 Check status (we will do this a lot)
• 6 Tracking changes
  • 6.1 Add a file
  • 6.2 Commit cycle
  • 6.3 Getting help
  • 6.4 First stage, then commit
  • 6.5 View commit history in the log
  • 6.6 Show changes to Workspace and Index
  • 6.7 What goes in a commit?
  • 6.8 Directories aren't content
• 7 Exploring history
  • 7.1 Add more text to Workspace
  • 7.2 View subsets of project history
  • 7.3 diff using a commit ID instead of the HEAD offset
  • 7.4 Restore the Workspace to a clean state
• 8 Moving through time
  • 8.1 Check out an old version of a file
  • 8.2 Don't lose your head
• 9 Ignoring Things
  • 9.1 Create some output files
  • 9.2 Create .gitignore
  • 9.3 Add ignore criteria to your .gitignore file
• 10 Branching and merging
  • 10.1 Add local repository to Github
  • 10.2 Create a new branch and switch to it
  • 10.3 Create a new file
  • 10.4 Switch back to master and merge
  • 10.5 Push changes on master to Github
• 11 Local conflicts
  • 11.1 Create and edit a "pepper" branch
  • 11.2 Switch back to main branch and create a conflicting edit
  • 11.3 Attempt to merge "pepper" branch
  • 11.4 Resolve conflicts and create commit
• 12 (Optional) Github
  • 12.1 (Optional) Working with remotes is a generalization of branch merging
  • 12.2 Git != Github
  • 12.3 Github authentication
  • 12.4 Set up new repository
  • 12.5 Configure remotes and push from local
  • 12.6 Check that you are up to date
• 13 (Optional) Collaborating
  • 13.1 Clone your repository
  • 13.2 Edit trees.txt
  • 13.3 Update and push
  • 13.4 Collaboration models
• 14 (Optional) Collaboration conflicts
  • 14.1 Person 1 edits ~/Desktop/garden/shopping_list.txt
  • 14.2 Person 2 edits ~/Desktop/garden-clone/shopping_list.txt without pulling
  • 14.3 Edit conflict, stage, commit, and push
• 15 Version control with Python source vs. iPython notebooks
• 16 Git command summary
• 17 Graphical User Interfaces
  • 17.1 Pro
  • 17.2 Cons
• 18 Next steps (intermediate Git)
  • 18.1 Useful commands
  • 18.2 Restore, Revert, and Reset
  • 18.3 Dangerous but useful commands
  • 18.4 Dangerous commands you should avoid
• 19 Intermediate Git
  • 19.1 Investigate configuration and workflow
  • 19.2 Fork demo project
  • 19.3 Review
  • 19.4 Git clients
  • 19.5 File issues
  • 19.6 Working with previous versions
  • 19.7 Useful commands
  • 19.8 Levels of undo
  • 19.9 Merge conflicts
  • 19.10 Team-wide strategies
• 20 Credits
• 21 References

Installation instructions

1. Up-to-date installation instructions for Git and Bash are available here: https://libguides.ucmerced.edu/software-carpentry/git/install
2. Create a Github account here: https://github.com/
3. Download Github Desktop: https://desktop.github.com

Unix Shell

Intro comments about "shell"

• Broadly speaking, there is a tension between making computer systems fast and making them easy to use.
• A common solution is to create a 2-layer architecture: A fast, somewhat opaque core surrounded by a more friendly scriptable interface (also referred to as "hooks" or an "API"). Examples of this include video games, Emacs and other highly customizable code editors, and high-level special-purpose languages like Stata and Mathematica.
• Unix shell is the scriptable shell around the operating system. It provides a simple interface for making the operating system do work, without having to know exactly how it accomplishes that work.

Very brief Bash intro

File system layout

• Minimal example: https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-novice/02-filedir/index.html
• "directory" == folder
• Your files are in "/home/<your login>"or "/Users/<your login>"
• Trees are upside-down in computer science

Who are you?

whoami

Where are you?

pwd                             # Print Working Directory

What's in this directory?

Command flags modify what a command does.

ls                              # List directory contents
ls -a                           # ... and include hidden files

Getting help

man ls                          # Manual for "ls"
ls --help                       # In-line help info; should work in Windows

• You can navigate through the man page using the space bar and arrow keys
• Quit man with "q"
• Online references are available for Windows users who don't have man pages: https://linux.die.net/

Changing directories

When a command is followed by an argument, it acts on that argument.

cd Desktop
ls *.pdf                        # List all files ending in ".pdf"
cd ..                           # go up one directory

History and pipes

The terminal saves your command history (typically 500 or 1000 commands)

• You can see previous commands using the up/down arrows
• You can edit the command that's currently visible and run it

Once your command history gets big, you might want to search it:

history
history | grep ls               # pipe the output of history into search

Why are we here?

Create and revisit a history of project snapshots

Determine when a bug was introduced

Git helps you…

• Move backwards and forwards in time using save points in your code history.
• Control what goes into a save point
• Collaborate
• Explore alternative versions of your project without destroying prior work
• Useful for text files, less useful for binary files (most of the useful features are text-oriented)

Setup

Inspect your configuration

git config --list                   # or -l
git config --list --show-origin     # where is this setting coming from?

Identify yourself

All git commands are 2-part verbs, followed by flags and arguments. Use quotes if you have spaces in your arguments (e.g. user name):

git config --global user.name "Gilgamesh"
git config --global user.email [email protected]

Line Endings

git config --global core.autocrlf input  # Unix and MacOS
git config --global core.autocrlf true   # Windows

Editor

You can use any text editor, but you want a sensible default in case Git opens one for you:

git config --global core.editor nano

Updating remotes

1. Only push the current branch (more about this later):

   git config --global push.default simple

2. Merge, don't rebase (more about this later):

   git config --global pull.rebase false

(Optional) Change name of default branch

git config --global init.defaultBranch main

Creating a repository

We are going to create and track plans for our garden.

Create a directory

cd ~/Desktop
mkdir garden
cd garden

Tell Git to make a repository

git init
ls
ls -a

• Git uses this special subdirectory to store all the information about the project, including all files and sub-directories located within the project's directory. If we ever delete the `.git` subdirectory, we will lose the project's history.
• Only one version of a file is visible; the rest are available in the database

Check status (we will do this a lot)

git status

Tracking changes

You can edit with nano or with the text editor of your choice. We'll try to show the editor and the command line side-by-side.

Add a file

touch shopping_list.txt
nano shopping_list.txt

##--- text file ---##

1. Cherry tomatoes

Save and quit. You can verify that you've saved your changes in Bash:

ls
cat shopping_list.txt

Commit cycle

Manually assemble your next save point in the Staging area ("Index"). When you're happy with it, commit it to the repository to create a new version of your project.

git status
git add shopping_list.txt
git status
git commit -m "Start shopping list for garden"
git status

• Commit messages should be useful; eventually there will be a lot of them (we'll come back to this)
• There are multiple synonym for each of these locations:
  • Workspace or Working Tree
  • Staging Area, Index, or Cache
  • Repository or Commit History

Getting help

# Concise help
git add -h

# Verbose help
man git-add

First stage, then commit

1. Edit the file

   ##--- text file ---##
   
   1. Cherry tomatoes
   2. Italian basil
   

   git status
   git diff

2. If you try to commit the file before you add it to the Staging area, nothing happens

   git commit -m "Add basil"
   git status

3. You have to add the file to the Staging area, then commit

   git add shopping_list.txt
   git commit -m "Add basil"

View commit history in the log

git log
git log --oneline

1. You can identify a commit by unique ID or by HEAD offset (H, HEAD~1, HEAD~2,…)
2. HEAD is a pointer to the most recent commit (of the active branch)

(Optional) Additional log options

git log --oneline --graph       # Useful if you have many branches
git log --author=~Gilgamesh
git log --since=5.days          # or weeks, months, years

Show changes to Workspace and Index

1. Edit the file

   ##--- text file ---##
   
   1. Cherry tomatoes
   2. Italian basil
   3. Jalapenos
   

2. By default, diff shows changes to Workspace

   git status
   git diff

3. Once the file is added to Staging, diff no longer shows changes

   git add shopping_list.txt
   git status
   git diff

4. You can examine Staging instead

   git diff --staged               # or "--cached"
   git commit -m "Add peppers"
   git status

What goes in a commit?

1. Staging area is for creating sensible commits. You can edit multiple files and only add a subset of them to a given commit. This makes it easier to look back at your work.
2. A commit should be a coherent functional chunk (whatever that means). One way to think about it: If you wanted to cleanly undo your work, what would that look like?

Directories aren't content

1. Try to commit an empty directory

   mkdir flowers
   git status
   git add flowers
   git status

2. Now add files and try again

   touch flowers/roses flowers/tulips
   git status
   git add flowers
   git commit -m "Initial thoughts on flowers"

Exploring history

Add more text to Workspace

##--- text file ---##

1. Cherry tomatoes
2. Italian basil
3. Jalapenos
4. Cayenne peppers

View subsets of project history

# NB: This is identical to "git diff" with no argument
# git diff HEAD shopping_list.txt

# Show all changes back to this point
# HEAD~1 doesn't have text changes - added directory
git diff HEAD~1 shopping_list.txt
git diff HEAD~3 shopping_list.txt

# Show changes for just HEAD~3
git show HEAD~3 shopping_list.txt

# Show changes in range of commits
git diff HEAD~3..HEAD~1 shopping_list.txt

(Optional) Range syntax also works for logs

git log HEAD~3..HEAD~1

diff using a commit ID instead of the HEAD offset

# Theoretically you can do this
# git diff f22b25e3233b4645dabd0d81e651fe074bd8e73b shopping_list.txt

# Use reduced 7-character ID from "git log --oneline"
git diff f22b25e shopping_list.txt

Restore the Workspace to a clean state

# We have unstaged changes
git status

# Revert the working tree to the most recent commit
git restore shopping_list.txt

# Check whether your editor is automatically updating!
cat shopping_list.txt

# The old way of doing it:
# git checkout HEAD shopping_list.txt

Moving through time

Check out an old version of a file

# Using the HEAD offset:
git checkout HEAD~3 shopping_list.txt

# Alternatively, you can use the commit ID:
#git checkout f22b25e shopping_list.txt

# View the changed file in the Working Tree
cat shopping_list.txt

# These changes are also in the Staging area; you can create a new commit
# that includes the older file version.
git status
git diff
git diff --staged

# Go back to the most recent version
git restore shopping_list.txt

# The old way:
#git checkout HEAD shopping_list.txt

Instructor's note: Update drawing with files moving in and out of working tree/staging area

Don't lose your head

What if you want to see a previous version of the whole project?

# Detached HEAD moves the whole HEAD pointer back to an earlier version
git checkout HEAD~2
git status
git log --oneline

# Move HEAD back to latest commit by checking out the branch name
git checkout master

Instructor's note: Update drawing with moving HEAD pointer

• You can also check out a tag.
• Unfortunately some of these terms, like "checkout", are overloaded. Think about what you want to do to your history, then look up the appropriate command.

Ignoring Things

Create some output files

mkdir results
touch a.dat b.dat c.dat results/a.out results/b.out
ls
git status

Create .gitignore

touch .gitignore
ls -a

Add ignore criteria to your .gitignore file

##--- text file ---##

*.dat
results/

# We are ignoring .dat files and tracking .gitignore
git status
git add .gitignore
git commit -m "Ignore output files"

• Ignoring complicated directory structures can be tricky, come talk to me
• You should generally ignore archives (zip, tar), images (png, jpg), binaries (dmg, iso, exe), compiler output, log files, and .DS_Store (Mac)

Branching and merging

Add local repository to Github

1. The local version of your repository and the Github version are separate. They're only in sync when you explicitly sync them.
2. We will periodically check the our local version against the Github version and sync them as necessary.

Create a new branch and switch to it

# Create a new branch
git branch feature

# Show all branches
git branch

# Switch to new branch
git switch feature
git branch
git status

Create a new file

touch feature.txt
nano feature.txt

##--- text file ---##

This is a new feature we're trying out

git status
git add feature.txt
git commit -m "Added a trial feature"

Switch back to master and merge

# File doesn't exist on the master branch
git switch master
ls

# Merging the feature branch adds your changes
git merge feature
ls

• This is simplest possible case: All of the new changes were in one branch (Fast-Forward merge moves branch tag)
• A branch history with competing changes is shown in the Conflicts section below (Recursive merge, which resembles the octopus diagram)

Push changes on master to Github

Local conflicts

Create and edit a "pepper" branch

git branch pepper
git switch pepper

##--- text file ---##

1. Cherry tomatoes
2. Italian basil
3. Jalapenos
4. Cayenne peppers

git add shopping_list.txt
git commit -m "Added peppers to pepper branch"

Switch back to main branch and create a conflicting edit

git switch master

##--- text file ---##

1. Cherry tomatoes
2. Italian basil
3. Jalapenos
4. Garlic

git add shopping_list.txt
git commit -m "Added garlic to main branch"

Attempt to merge "pepper" branch

git merge pepper

Resolve conflicts and create commit

Edit the file to resolve the conflict. You can delete one of the two lines, combine them, or make any other changes. Delete the conflict markers before staging the file (the lines beginning in "<", "=", and ">").

##--- text file ---##

<<<<<<< HEAD
4. Garlic
=======
4. Cayenne peppers
>>>>>>> dabb4c8c450e8475aee9b14b4383acc99f42af1d

git add shopping_list.txt
git commit -m "Added garlic to main branch"

(Optional) Github

(Optional) Working with remotes is a generalization of branch merging

1. git pull merges origin/master branch into local master branch
2. git push merges local master branch into origin/master branch
3. Under the hood, pull is fetch + merge
   1. fetch gets updates from remote
   2. Local repository has a 2 branches: remote/master and master
   3. merge merges remote/master into master
4. Push appears to not be compound?

Git != Github

• easy collaboration
• sync between machines
• off-site backup
• peer review

Github authentication

1. Github Desktop uses browser token across platforms. Unix people can use SSH keys instead.
2. Two-factor authentication options
   1. Email
   2. Github Mobile
   3. Personal authenticator (e.g. Microsoft, 1Password, etc)
   4. SMS (not preferred)

Set up new repository

• Create new repository (visual instructions here: https://swcarpentry.github.io/git-novice/07-github/index.html)
• Call it "garden"
• Find HTTPS string that identifies repository

Configure remotes and push from local

git remote add origin https://github.com/devnich/garden.git
git remote -v
git push origin master          # you should get a password prompt

If you configure your origin as upstream, you can just do:

git push

Check that you are up to date

pull is a shortcut for fetch + merge

git pull

(Optional) Collaborating

Instructor's note: Demo this section with two terminal windows, one for "garden" and one for "garden-clone"

Clone your repository

git clone https://github.com/devnich/garden.git ~/Desktop/garden-clone
cd garden-clone
touch trees.txt

Edit trees.txt

##--- text file ---##

1. Plum
2. Pluot
3. Aprium

Update and push

pwd                             # we are in ~/Desktop/garden-clone
git status
git add trees.txt
git commit -m "I like plums"
git push
cd ../garden                   # now we are in ~/Desktop/garden
ls
git pull
ls

Collaboration models

cf. https://docs.github.com/en/pull-requests/collaborating-with-pull-requests/getting-started/about-collaborative-development-models

Shared Repository workflow

1. Clone repository
2. Create new branch
3. Push branch to shared repository
4. Request merge

Fork-and-Pull workflow

1. Fork repository
2. Clone forked repository
3. Create branch (optional)
4. Push changes to forked repository
5. Create pull request for original repository

(Optional) Collaboration conflicts

Person 1 edits ~/Desktop/garden/shopping_list.txt

##--- text file ---##

1. Cherry tomatoes
2. Italian basil
3. Jalapenos
4. Scotch bonnet peppers

git add shopping_list.txt
git commit -m "Added more peppers our copy"
git push origin master

Person 2 edits ~/Desktop/garden-clone/shopping_list.txt without pulling

##--- text file ---##

1. Cherry tomatoes
2. Italian basil
3. Jalapenos
4. Garlic

git add shopping_list.txt
git commit -m "Added garlic to rival copy"

# Rejected because Git can't merge changes cleanly
git push origin master

# Pulling results in a local conflict
git pull origin master

Edit conflict, stage, commit, and push

Edit the file to resolve the conflict. You can delete one of the two lines, combine them, or make any other changes. Delete the conflict markers before staging the file (the lines beginning in "<", "=", and ">").

##--- text file ---##

<<<<<<< HEAD
4. Garlic
=======
4. Cayenne peppers
>>>>>>> dabb4c8c450e8475aee9b14b4383acc99f42af1d

You may want to enable a default merge tool:

git config --global merge.tool meld

• Open source merge tools include Vimdiff, Meld, Kdiff, Gitfiend, Git Cola, etc. There are many other options!
• Always pull before you push
• To minimize conflicts, do your work on a separate branch

Version control with Python source vs. iPython notebooks

.ipynb files contain a lot of JSON boilerplate that isn't code

Git command summary

Git commands are about moving stuff between trees: https://ndpsoftware.com/git-cheatsheet.html

Graphical User Interfaces

Pro

1. Viewing history is a much better experience

Cons

1. Not fully functional (missing commands and command options)
2. Git is still complicated. Menus and buttons don’t change that.
3. Accidental button presses are scary

Next steps (intermediate Git)

Useful commands

• git blame: See who changed each line of a file
• git bisect: Find out when a change was introduced (good man page)
• git add --patch: Stage a part of a file ("hunk") instead the entire file
• git -i <command>: Run a command interactively, confirming each step

Restore, Revert, and Reset

Each of these is a different answer to the question, "How do I get back to where I was?" They are listed from least dangerous to most dangerous.

• git-restore: Restore files in the working tree from the index or from another commit. This command does not update your branch.
• git-revert: Make a new commit that reverts the changes made by other commits (good man page)
• git-reset: Update your branch, moving the tip in order to add or remove commits from the branch (i.e. it moves the HEAD pointer around and then takes additional actions base on the options you provide). This operation changes the commit history.

Dangerous but useful commands

These commands are potentially dangerous because they rewrite history. You should never change or delete history that you have shared with other people.

• git reset: Delete uncommitted changes
• git reset --hard: Delete some of your commits to get back to an earlier project state. Cannot be undone!
• git rebase: Rewrite the history of branch A to include branch B. This is different than merging branch B into branch A; merging retains your project history, whereas rebasing rewrites that history.
• git squash: Convert multiple commits into a single commit. This also rewrites your project history.

Dangerous commands you should avoid

• git cherry-pick: Copy a single commit from a different branch. This rewrites your project history piecemeal, which can make it difficult to merge branches in the future.

Intermediate Git

Investigate configuration and workflow

1. Git local configuration

   git config --list --show-origin     # where is this setting coming from?

2. Project vs global configuration

   • .gitignore
   • .gitattributes

3. Github authentication

Fork demo project

1. Fork
2. Clone
3. Review settings

Review

1. An amazing tool with a terrible user interface. We teach with the command line because it's complete; you may want to adopt a porcelain.
2. Start review at slide 13 (skip bisect slides; we'll come back to them later)
3. Git terms are overloaded

Git clients

1. Stand-alone clients
2. Editor integration

File issues

All else being equal, you want to produce minimal diffs

1. Mac vs PC endings
2. Python vs IPython Notebook

Working with previous versions

"Moving through time" section.

1. Check out previous file version
   • Restore with "checkout"
   • Review status of staging
2. Check out previous commit

Useful commands

1. Blame

   git blame scripts/functions.py
   git blame HEAD~2 scripts/functions.py

2. Patch

   git add --patch <filename>

   git add -i
   s # review status
   p # add patches
   1 # Select file patches

3. Bisect: https://tracehelms.com/blog/using-git-bisect-to-find-when-a-bug-was-introduced

Levels of undo

1. Restore (or checkout HEAD)

   git restore <filename>

   git restore --staged <filename>
   git restore <filename>

2. Revert

   git revert -n HEAD
   git revert --continue

3. Reset moves the HEAD

   git reset --soft HEAD~
   git status
   # git add
   # git commit
   git restore .

   git reset --mixed HEAD~
   git status
   # git commit
   git restore .

   git reset --hard HEAD~
   git status
   git log --oneline
   
   # Are you behind the remote?

Merge conflicts

1. Edit and resolve by hand

2. Escaping a bad merge

   # Option 1 (preferred)
   git merge --abort
   
   # Option 2 (destructive)
   git reset --hard HEAD

Team-wide strategies

Branching strategies

1. Topic branch vs long-lived release version
2. Tags for canonical versions

Merge strategies (merge vs rebase)

1. Rebase

   git checkout feature
   git rebase main
   git checkout main
   git merge feature

2. Squash

   git rebase -i HEAD~2
   
   # Then edit action for previous commits to be "squash"

   # Can also implicity squash using reset
   git reset --soft HEAD~2
   git commit

Github workflows (push vs pull request)

1. Demo with forked repository
2. Push is easier with small team
3. Pull Request implies that repository owner is actually checking work and not just blindly merging

Credits

1. https://dlstrong.github.io/git-novice/
2. https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2
3. https://gitlab.com/liibre/curso/-/wikis/material
4. https://swcarpentry.github.io/git-novice/reference
5. https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-novice/reference/
6. https://twitter.com/jay_gee

References

1. The Pro Git book: https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2
2. Graphical user interfaces for Git (useful for visualizing diffs and merges): https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2/Appendix-A%3A-Git-in-Other-Environments-Graphical-Interfaces
3. Git for Advanced Beginners: http://think-like-a-git.net
4. "Git is built on a graph. Almost every Git command manipulates this graph. To understand Git deeply, focus on the properties of this graph, not workflows or commands.": https://codewords.recurse.com/issues/two/git-from-the-inside-out
5. A Visual Git Reference: https://marklodato.github.io/visual-git-guide/index-en.html
6. Visual cheat sheet: https://ndpsoftware.com/git-cheatsheet.html