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<h1 class="page-header">France</h1>
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France </h2>
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<p><span style="line-height: 18.9090900421143px;">Exhibit items related to France.</span></p>
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Exhibit Items </h2>
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<a href="exhibits/perspective.html">Perspective</a> Peckham, John (1556)<p><p>The Perspectiva of Peckham (13th century) became the established university textbook on perspective. It was the text Galileo likely used in his early studies of optics. Renaissance artists were well-versed in the classic works on perspective.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/principles-geometry.html">Principles of Geometry</a> Dürer, Albrecht (1535)<p><p>This landmark work by Albrecht Dürer presents several variations on the technique of “Alberti’s window.” Here the artist is creating a drawing of a lute with true perspective by means of a string drawn from the object, through the canvas window, to the vanishing point on the wall.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/curiosities-perspective.html">The Curiosities of Perspective</a> Nicéron, Jean François (1663)<p><p>While visiting Florence, Niceron was shown a unique perspective drawing tool devised by the painter Cigoli, one of Galileo’s friends. He viewed examples of anamorphic drawing techniques and Alberti’s perspective boxes. All of these make an appearance in this treatise.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/treatise-painting.html">Treatise on Painting</a> da Vinci, Leonardo (1651)<p><p>Despite a lack of publications, Leonardo’s fame grew as word of his notebooks spread. The first book by Leonardo to be printed was his Treatise on Painting, published a century after his death.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/optics-eye.html">The Optics of the Eye</a> Chérubin d’ Orléans, (1671)<p><p>In this illustration, Chérubin d’Orléans adopted the lunar map of Hevelius. The putti are observing the Moon with telescopes equipped with the “pantograph,” a perspectival tool devised by d’Orléans.<br /></p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/celestial-globe-gores.html">Celestial Globe Gores</a> Coronelli, Vincenzo (1693; reprint ca. 1800)<p><p>Coronelli, a Franciscan theologian and astronomer who worked in both Italy and France, was a founder of modern geography and an influential maker of celestial and terrestrial globes.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/planisphere-containing-celestial-constellations.html">A Planisphere containing the Celestial Constellations</a> Lacaille, Nicolas (1756)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/researches-fossil-bones-quadrupeds.html">Researches on the Fossil Bones of Quadrupeds</a> Cuvier, Georges (1812)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/essay-refractive-lenses.html">Essay on Refractive Lenses</a> Hartsoeker, Nicolas (1694)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/atmosphere-popular-meteorology.html">The Atmosphere: Popular Meteorology</a> Flammarion, Camille (1888)<p><p>Meteorology is a quest of discovery, the challenge of boldly exploring where no one has gone before. That is the appeal and rhetorically durable theme which has made this woodcut so appealing.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/ancient-and-modern-doctrines-holy-fathers.html">The Ancient and Modern Doctrines of the Holy Fathers </a> Galileo, (1636)<p><p>In response to gathering criticism, Galileo in 1615 wrote a reconciliation of Scripture and Copernicanism which circulated in manuscript as the Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina. This is the first printed edition, which appeared in 1636.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/christian-expedition-china.html">On the Christian Expedition to China</a> Ricci, Matteo (1616)<p><p>This book recounts the establishment of the Jesuit mission in China in the late 1500s led by Matteo Ricci. When Ricci predicted a solar eclipse in 1592 with greater accuracy than the astronomers of the Chinese court, Emperor Wan-li invited Ricci to Beijing.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/celestial-worlds-discoverd-or-conjectures-concerning-inhabitants-plants-and-productions.html">The Celestial Worlds Discover'd, or, Conjectures concerning the Inhabitants, Plants and Productions of the Worlds in the Planets</a> Huygens, Christiaan (1698)<p><p>In this translation of Huygens’ Kosmotheoros, Huygens took up questions of the habitability of other planets and the existence of extraterrestrial life. These topics were also considered by Kepler, Wilkins and other popular writers.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/philosopher-china.html">The Philosopher of China</a> Confucius, (1687)<p><p>Confucius lived in the early 5th century BCE, roughly contemporary with the Pythagoreans and Presocratic natural philosophers. Confucius taught: “Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself,” an early version of the Golden Rule.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/dissection-parts-human-body.html">On the Dissection of the Parts of the Human Body</a> Estienne, Charles (1545)<p><p>Clip art with woodblocks: Estienne obtained a number of woodblocks from an obscure artist. To show anatomical detail, he cut little rectangles out of the art woodblocks and substituted his own diagrammatic drawings.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/observations-bologna-rotation-mars-around-its-axis.html">Observations in Bologna of the rotation of Mars around its axis</a> Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1666)<p><p>These 3 broadsides, issued approximately 2 weeks apart, contain the first detailed illustrations of Mars.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/meteorology-1506.html">Meteorology, 1506</a> D’Ailly, Pierre (1506)<p><p>This commentary on Aristotle’s meteorology contains numerous contemporary annotations and drawings (not yet studied). D’Ailly was a theologian, mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer who helped the medieval church heal the schism of three rival popes.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/catalog-nebulae-and-star-clusters.html">Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters </a> Messier, Charles (1774)<p><p>This is the first edition of Messier's catalog of cloudy spots or "nebulae," numbered from M1 to M45. In 1781, Messier published a final catalog of 103 nebulae, which are now called "Messier objects." The Great Orion Nebula is M42.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/galileo-shows-satellites-jupiter-venetian-senators.html">Galileo shows the satellites of Jupiter to the Venetian Senators</a> Figuier, Louis (1870)<p><p>Galileo offered first-hand telescopic demonstrations to influential colleagues and supporters across Venice and Tuscany. In early 1611, Galileo visited Rome, invited by Clavius and the Jesuits.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/celestial-atlas1776.html">Celestial Atlas,1776</a> Flamsteed, John (1776)<p><p>A globe maker for the French royal family, J. Fortin, prepared this edition of Flamsteed’s celestial atlas in a much reduced format. Flamsteed was the first Astronomer Royal, who oversaw the building of the Greenwich Observatory. Newton relied upon Flamsteed’s star positions in his Principia.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/revolutions-sea.html">Revolutions of the Sea</a> Adhémar, Joseph Alphonse (1842)<p><p>Accepting Agassiz’ theory of the Ice Age, Adhémar proposed that an astronomical cycle – the precession of the equinoxes – affects the melting of polar ice caps and thereby may lead to a catastrophic rise in sea level around the globe.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/letter-pythagorean-and-copernican-opinion-motion-earth-and-stability-sun.html">Letter on the Pythagorean and Copernican Opinion on the Motion of the Earth and Stability of the Sun</a> Foscarini, Paolo (1635)<p><p>The Carmelite theologian Foscarini defended Copernicanism as compatible with Scripture in this open letter, originally printed in Naples in 1615. Foscarini employed arguments similar to Galileo’s own Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, penned in the same year.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/natural-history-plants-1551.html">The Natural History of Plants, 1551</a> Fuchs, Leonhart (1551)<p><p>Herbals were illustrated, colored, and issued both in large folios and small, economical, hand-sized, field-guide formats like this one.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/divine-faculty-stars.html">On the Divine Faculty of Stars</a> Offusius, Johann Franciscus (1570)<p><p>This work on astrology was written by the leader of a Paris circle of astronomers. That group extensively annotated the OU copy of Copernicus within a decade after it was printed.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/essay-mineral-geography-paris-basin.html">Essay on the Mineral Geography of the Paris Basin</a> Cuvier, Georges (1810)<p><p>Brongniart and Cuvier showed how fossils were the key to unravelling the order of the strata in the Paris basin. Their fieldwork discoveries and anatomical reconstructions of fossils of large quadrupeds demonstrated the existence of former, pre-human worlds.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/reformed-heaven.html">The Reformed Heaven</a> Bruno, Giordano (1750)<p><p>This work contains a survey of the constellations and a cosmological dialogue, Lo Spaccio de la Bestia Trionfante (The Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast, 1584). Bruno, a Dominican astrologer and philosopher, affirmed that the universe is infinite, having no center.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/memoirs-made-late-journey-through-empire-china.html">Memoirs... made in a late Journey through the Empire of China</a> Comte, Louis le (1698)<p><p>Le Comte, a French Jesuit sent in 1687 by Louis XIV to work in the Kangxi court, depicted the Beijing observatory at the end of Schall’s life.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/meteorology.html">On Meteorology</a> Descartes, René (1637)<p><p>This essay on meteorology contains Descartes’ explanation of the optics of the rainbow and his law of refraction. Descartes’ ambitious aim was to produce a new body of writings that would completely displace the Aristotelian corpus.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/beijing-history-and-description.html">Beijing: History and Description</a> Favier, Pierre-Marie-Alphonse (1897)<p><p>Photographs of the Beijing observatory show what remained of the astronomical instruments in 1897.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/treatise-painting-0.html">Treatise on Painting</a> da Vinci, Leonardo (1716)<p><p>Despite a lack of publications, Leonardo’s fame grew as word of his notebooks spread. The first work by Leonardo to be printed was his Treatise on Painting, published a century after his death. That 1651 Italian edition is on display at the Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art in Spring 2016.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/treatise-equilibrium-fluids.html">Treatise on the Equilibrium of Fluids</a> Pascal, Blaise (1663)<p><p>To clarify the ability of the barometer to measure the pressure of the atmosphere, Pascal left a barometer at a low elevation in the town of Clermont, in Auvergne, while taking another with him as he climbed the Puy-de-Dôme.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/celebrated-questions-book-genesis.html">Celebrated Questions on the Book of Genesis</a> Marsenne, Marin (1623)<p><p>Commentaries on Genesis often served as scientific treatises or encyclopedias. Mersenne, a French theologian, astronomer, music theorist and scientific correspondent, addressed a wide range of issues in cosmology in this commentary.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/tornado.html">On the Tornado</a> Boscovich, Ruder (1749)<p><p>Boscovic, a Jesuit mathematical physicist from the region of modern-day Croatia, published this account of a tornado that passed through Rome in June of 1749. Benjamin Franklin’s reading of this book prompted his own tornado investigations, including storm chasing.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/body-1662.html">On the Body, 1662</a> Descartes, René (1662)<p><p>The body in mechanical philosophy: Descartes applied the mechanical philosophy to every field of natural knowledge, including cosmology, meteorology, the Earth, astronomy and, in this book, the human body.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/equations-relative-movement-systems-bodies.html">On the Equations of the Relative Movement of Systems of Bodies</a> Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave de (1835)<p><p>Coriolis explicitly analyzed rotating systems such as a waterwheel, but his conclusions apply to the atmosphere and the rotation of the Earth. Galileo’s principle of the relativity of motion depends upon an analogy between the Earth sailing through space and a ship at sea.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/body-1677.html">On the Body, 1677</a> Descartes, René (1677)<p><p>The illustration of the heart in this French edition shows a different artistic style than the Latin edition.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/principles-philosophy.html">Principles of Philosophy</a> Déscartes, René (1644)<p><p>In Descartes’ cosmology, each star lies at the center of a “vortex,” or gigantic pool of circulating fluid. Stars and vortices are mortal, passing into and out of existence.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/use-celestial-and-terrestrial-globes-and-spheres-according-different-systems-world.html">The Use of Celestial and Terrestrial Globes, and Spheres, according to the different Systems of the World</a> Bion, Nicolas (1710)<p><p>Even today, while we adopt the Copernican system, we still teach observational astronomy and navigation by the stars using the traditional geocentric instruments: nocturnal dials, celestial globes, and armillary spheres.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/galileo-mechanics.html">Galileo, Mechanics</a> Marsenne, Marin (1634)<p><p>As a young scientist-engineer, Galileo wrote two manuscripts on motion. The first, Delle macchine, written ca. 1592; reflected the tradition of Aristotle’s Mechanics. It was never printed. The second, revised study, Le mechaniche, written ca.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/conversations-plurality-worlds.html">Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds</a> Fontenelle, (1728)<p><p>In this dramatic and entertaining dialogue, Fontenelle explained Cartesian philosophy and cosmology and argued for the existence of life on other worlds. He justified a popular writing style by encouraging women and men to engage in pleasant evening conversation together on scientific topics.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/physical-demonstration-rotational-movement-earth.html">Physical Demonstration of the Rotational Movement of the Earth</a> Foucault, Léon (1851)<p><p>The Foucault pendulum swings in a constant plane or direction, and thus reveals the rotation of the Earth turning underneath.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/physical-demonstration-rotational-movement-earth-0.html">Physical Demonstration of the Rotational Movement of the Earth</a> Foucault, Léon (1851)<p><p>The Foucault pendulum swings in a constant plane or direction, and thus reveals the rotation of the Earth turning underneath.</p></p> </td>
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