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<h1 class="page-header">Astronomy</h1>
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Astronomy </h2>
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<p>Exhibit items on the subject of astronomy.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/works-giorgio-vasari-vol-6.html">The Works of Giorgio Vasari, vol. 6</a> Vasari
, Giorgio (1878-85)<p><p>Astronomers and artists alike studied the science of perspective. The title page of the Sidereus nuncius refers to the telescope as a little “perspective tube” (perspicilli).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-giorgio-vasari-vol-7.html">The Works of Giorgio Vasari, vol. 7</a> Vasari
, Giorgio (1878-85)<p><p>Astronomers and artists alike studied the science of perspective. The title page of the Sidereus nuncius refers to the telescope as a little “perspective tube” (perspicilli).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/astronomical-catechism.html">An Astronomical Catechism</a> Whitwell, Catherine (1818)<p><p>This dialogue between a mother and her daughter offers a delightful introduction to the night sky. It contains 23 engraved plates drawn by Whitwell herself, including four hand-colored folding plates.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-giorgio-vasari-vol-8.html">The Works of Giorgio Vasari, vol. 8</a> Vasari
, Giorgio (1878-85)<p><p>Astronomers and artists alike studied the science of perspective. The title page of the Sidereus nuncius refers to the telescope as a little “perspective tube” (perspicilli).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/astronomical-poem.html">Astronomical Poem</a> Hyginus, (1485)<p><p>Greek writers compiled ancient stories of the constellations, often in poetic form, with memorable instructions for locating bright stars and zodiac constellations. Constellations of the zodiac contain the wandering courses of the planets and the annual path of the Sun.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/elements-geometry-1570.html">Elements of Geometry, 1570</a> Euclid, (1570)<p><p>Euclid was the starting point for any further study of optics and perspective. Optics combined geometry, experiment, vision and art. In the presentation of the geometrical solids, this copy retains the original pop-ups.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/atlas-starry-heavens.html">Atlas of the Starry Heavens</a> Littrow, Joseph J. von (1839)<p><p>Von Littrow, Director of the Vienna Observatory, adopted Bode’s constellation figures and star positions. In von Littrow’s atlas, the constellation figures appear faintly in the background.<br /></p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/firmament-king-sobiesci-or-map-heavens.html">The Firmament of King Sobiesci, or Map of the Heavens</a> Hevelius, Johann (1690)<p><p>The Uranographia of Hevelius, the most detailed and influential celestial atlas of the 17th century, contains 54 beautiful double-page engraved plates of 73 constellations, and 2 oversized folding plates of planispheres.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/divine-proportion.html">The Divine Proportion</a> Pacioli, Luca (1509)<p><p>Consider this geometrical drawing, portrayed with true perspective and a mastery of light and shadow. It comes from a treatise on art and mathematics by Luca Pacioli, yet it was not drawn by Pacioli.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/celestial-atlas-1729.html">Celestial Atlas, 1729</a> Flamsteed, John (1729)<p><p>A globe maker for the French royal family, J. Fortin, prepared this edition of Flamsteed’s celestial atlas in a much reduced format. Flamsteed was the first Astronomer Royal, who oversaw the building of the Greenwich Observatory. Newton relied upon Flamsteed’s star positions in his Principia.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/uranias-mirror-familiar-treatise-astronomy.html">Urania's Mirror with A Familiar Treatise on Astronomy</a> Aspin, Jehoshaphat (1825)<p><p>Constellation figures remained popular in education, as in these constellation cards which make learning the constellations easy. The set includes 32 cards, each focused upon one or a few constellations.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/map-moon.html">Map of the Moon</a> Hevelius, Johann (1647)<p><p>Accurate depiction of the topography of the Moon was accomplished by mid-century in this lunar atlas by Hevelius. It set a new standard for precision that remained unmatched for a century.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/practice-perspective.html">The Practice of Perspective</a> Sirigatti, Lorenzo (1596)<p><p>This beautiful work by Sirigatti, published in 1596, brings the tradition of perspective drawing up to Galileo’s time. Sirigatti was a member of the Academy of Drawing (Accademia del Disegno), a school for artists and engineers where Galileo studied as a young man.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/celestial-globe-gores.html">Celestial Globe Gores</a> Coronelli, Vincenzo (1693; reprint ca. 1800)<p><p>Coronelli, a Franciscan theologian and astronomer who worked in both Italy and France, was a founder of modern geography and an influential maker of celestial and terrestrial globes.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/preliminary-discourse-astronomy.html">Preliminary Discourse for Astronomy</a> Hevelius, Johann (1690)<p><p>In the Prodromus, Hevelius explained the instruments and methods used to produce the star catalog. Hevelius’ Gdansk observatory, “Stellaburg,” was the best in Europe until the later national observatories of France and Britain.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/new-celestial-and-terrestrial-observations.html">New Celestial and Terrestrial Observations</a> Fontana, Francesco (1646)<p><p>Inspired by Galileo, Fontana constructed his own telescope, improving the optics. Around 1629 he began a series of detailed sketches of the face of the Moon. A series of 28 copperplate engravings reveal the Moon’s surface as perceived on different dates, as well as a fold-out lunar map.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/treasury-optics.html">Treasury of Optics</a> al-Haytham, Ibn (1572)<p><p>The frontispiece depicts a variety of optical phenomena: Reflection. Refraction. Perspective. The rainbow. Burning mirrors.<br /></p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/essays-members-academy-gelati.html">Essays of the Members of the Academy of Gelati</a> (1671)<p><p>This is the scarce first edition of writings by a leading learned society in Bologna, the Accademia dei Gelati. The volume includes striking woodcuts by the astronomer Geminiano Montanari of white stars against a black background.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/new-philosophy-about-our-world-beneath-moon.html">New Philosophy, about our World beneath the Moon</a> Gilbert, William (1651)<p><p>Gilbert, physician to Queen Elisabeth I, attempted to map the world of the Moon with the unaided eye, even before the telescope of Galileo. In antiquity, Plutarch had surmised the existence of land and ocean regions in the dark and light patches of the lunar surface.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/introduction-astronomy-1489.html">Introduction to Astronomy, 1489</a> Abu Ma'shar, (1489)<p><p>Abu Ma’shar, an astronomer in 9th century Baghdad, was one of the most prolific writers on astrology during the Middle Ages. This work was cited by Albert the Great, Roger Bacon, Pierre d’Ailly, and Pico della Mirandola, among others.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/great-art-light-and-shadow.html">The Great Art of Light and Shadow</a> Kircher, Athanasius (1646)<p><p>A “camera obscura” (“dark room”) consists of a box or container in which light enters via a small hole and projects an image on an opposite wall. The image will be reversed and upside-down, but its proportions will be preserved.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/moon.html">The Moon</a> Nasmyth, James (1876)<p><p>Nasmyth, a Scottish engineer known for his invention of the steam hammer, combined an avid interest in astronomy and photography. Carpenter was an astronomer at the Greenwich Observatory. Together they constructed plaster models of the lunar surface.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/map-heavens.html">Map of the Heavens</a> Bode, Johann (1801)<p><p>This beautiful atlas fused artistic beauty and scientific precision.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/optics-eye.html">The Optics of the Eye</a> Chérubin d’ Orléans, (1671)<p><p>In this illustration, Chérubin d’Orléans adopted the lunar map of Hevelius. The putti are observing the Moon with telescopes equipped with the “pantograph,” a perspectival tool devised by d’Orléans.<br /></p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/starry-messenger.html">Starry Messenger</a> Galileo, (1610)<p><p><strong>Featuring Galileo's Handwriting</strong>. When Galileo heard news of telescopes invented in the Netherlands he worked out the underlying geometry and crafted one of his own design. In this work, Galileo published the first observations of the heavens made with the telescope.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/measuring-heavens.html">Measuring the Heavens</a> Bayer, Johann (1661)<p><p>In contrast to Piccolomini, who omitted constellation figures in favor of scientific accuracy, Bayer superimposed constellation figures upon the star maps without compromising positional accuracy. These figures were artfully drawn by Alexander Mair.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/fixed-stars.html">On the Fixed Stars</a> Piccolomini, Alessandro (1540)<p><p>In contrast to the constellation figures in Hyginus and Abu Ma’shar, Piccolomini created a star atlas, measuring the positions of the stars according to an indicated scale (specific to each plate). He designated stars by Roman letters (a, b, c, etc.) in order of apparent brightness.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-giorgio-vasari-vol-1.html">The Works of Giorgio Vasari, vol. 1</a> Vasari , Giorgio (1878-85)<p><p>Astronomers and artists alike studied the science of perspective. The title page of the Sidereus nuncius refers to the telescope as a little “perspective tube” (perspicilli).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/new-star-foot-serpent-handler.html">On the New Star in the Foot of the Serpent Handler</a> Kepler, Johann (1606)<p><p>Kepler’s star map shows the constellations of Ophiuchus (the Serpent Handler), Sagittarius and Scorpius. The Milky Way runs diagonally down from the left, and the “ecliptic,” or annual path of the Sun, runs horizontally through Sagittarius and Scorpius.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/galileo-telescope-replica.html">Galileo Telescope replica</a> ( )<p><p>The optics, leather and gold tooling of the telescope suggest how scientific instruments were crafted with a combination of engineering expertise and bookbinding arts. Galileo’s telescope included two lenses, an ocular lens near the eye, and an objective lens at the far end of the tube.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-giorgio-vasari-vol-2.html">The Works of Giorgio Vasari, vol. 2</a> Vasari
, Giorgio (1878-85)<p><p>Astronomers and artists alike studied the science of perspective. The title page of the Sidereus nuncius refers to the telescope as a little “perspective tube” (perspicilli).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/revolutions-heavenly-spheres-1566.html">On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 1566</a> Copernicus, Nicolaus (1566)<p><p>Copernicus argued that the Sun rather than the Earth lies in the center of the universe. The Earth moves as a planet around the Sun, carrying its Moon along as a satellite. In 1543 little proof was available that the Earth moves; there were many reasons not to accept it.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-giorgio-vasari-vol-3.html">The Works of Giorgio Vasari, vol. 3</a> Vasari
, Giorgio (1878-85)<p><p>Astronomers and artists alike studied the science of perspective. The title page of the Sidereus nuncius refers to the telescope as a little “perspective tube” (perspicilli).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/theater-comets.html">Theater of Comets</a> Lubieniecki, Stanislaw (1666-68)<p><p>The search for comets, charged with astrological meaning, stimulated careful scrutiny and revision of maps of the stars. Lubieniecki collected an anthology of cometary reports, attempting to describe every known comet observed in Europe up to 1665.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/microscopy.html">On Microscopy</a> Hooke, Robert (1665)<p><p>Hooke’s Micrographia is the most remarkable visual treatise of 17th century microscopy. In describing the appearance of cork, Hooke coined the term “cell.” Hooke’s large fold-out plate of the flea is unforgettable.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-giorgio-vasari-vol-4.html">The Works of Giorgio Vasari, vol. 4</a> Vasari
, Giorgio (1878-85)<p><p>Astronomers and artists alike studied the science of perspective. The title page of the Sidereus nuncius refers to the telescope as a little “perspective tube” (perspicilli).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-ptolemy.html">Works, Ptolemy</a> Ptolemy, (1541)<p><p>For this first edition of Ptolemy’s collected works, Johann Honter drew constellation figures after the manner of Albrecht Dürer. The figures appear in contemporary dress rather than in a classical style.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-giorgio-vasari-vol-5.html">The Works of Giorgio Vasari, vol. 5</a> Vasari
, Giorgio (1878-85)<p><p>Astronomers and artists alike studied the science of perspective. The title page of the Sidereus nuncius refers to the telescope as a little “perspective tube” (perspicilli).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/new-brandenburg-ephemerides-celestial-motions.html">New Brandenburg Ephemerides of the Celestial Motions</a> Origanus, David (1609)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/hevelius-sextant.html">The Hevelius Sextant</a><p><div class="node__content">
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<a href="exhibits/astronomicall-description-late-comet-18-novemb-1618-16-december-following-certaine-morall.html">An astronomicall description of the late Comet from the 18. of Novemb. 1618 to the 16. of December following. With certaine Morall Prognostics</a> Bainbridge, John (1619)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/synopsis-cometary-astronomy-philosophical-transactions-royal-society-london.html">A Synopsis of Cometary Astronomy, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</a> Halley, Edmond (1705)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/mathematical-principles-natural-philosophy-1713.html">Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, 1713</a> Newton, Isaac (1713)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/planisphere-containing-celestial-constellations.html">A Planisphere containing the Celestial Constellations</a> Lacaille, Nicolas (1756)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/keplers-universe.html">Kepler's Universe</a> Mitchell, Ron<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/tellurian-trippensee-planetarium-company.html">Tellurian, Trippensee Planetarium Company</a> (1908-1920)<p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/three-jesuit-portraits-loyola-bellarmine-clavius.html">Three Jesuit Portraits: Loyola, Bellarmine, Clavius</a><p><div class="node__content">
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<a href="exhibits/tycho-brahe-prints-portrait-6-copenhagen-7-hven-8-gardens-9-uraniborg-10-architectural-plan.html">Tycho Brahe prints: Portrait (6); Copenhagen (7); Hven (8); Gardens (9); Uraniborg (10); Architectural plan (11)</a><p><div class="clearfix text-formatted field field-node--field-exhibit-object-description field-formatter-text-default field-name-field-exhibit-object-description field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden has-single">
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<a href="exhibits/system-saturn.html">The System of Saturn</a> Huygens, Christiaan (1659)<p><p>In this work, Huygens resolved the enigma of Saturn’s changing telescopic appearance by proposing that a ring surrounds Saturn at an angle, varying in visibility from the Earth.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/mathematical-principles-natural-philosophy-1729.html">Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, 1729</a> Newton, Isaac (1729)<p><p>This is the first English translation of Newton’s masterwork in physics. The Copernican idea that the Earth moves as a planet required a thorough revision of physics. Galileo undertook this task in his Discourse on Two New Sciences, published 80 years after Copernicus.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/sundial-replica.html">Sundial replica</a> (2015)<p><p>A sundial consists of a gnomon, which casts the Sun’s shadow, and a dial on which the shadow indicates the time. This simple portable sundial features a gnomon that can be adjusted according to one’s latitude. Sundials have ranged in size from pocket-dials to monumental architecture.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/christian-expedition-china.html">On the Christian Expedition to China</a> Ricci, Matteo (1616)<p><p>This book recounts the establishment of the Jesuit mission in China in the late 1500s led by Matteo Ricci. When Ricci predicted a solar eclipse in 1592 with greater accuracy than the astronomers of the Chinese court, Emperor Wan-li invited Ricci to Beijing.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/marriage-philology-and-mercury.html">The Marriage of Philology and Mercury</a> Capella, Martianus (1499)<p><p>Capella described the seven liberal arts. The first three are grammar, logic or dialectic, and rhetoric. Then come the mathematical sciences, geometry and arithmetic. Geometrical circles in motion make astronomy. Numbers in motion make music.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/atmosphere-popular-meteorology.html">The Atmosphere: Popular Meteorology</a> Flammarion, Camille (1888)<p><p>Meteorology is a quest of discovery, the challenge of boldly exploring where no one has gone before. That is the appeal and rhetorically durable theme which has made this woodcut so appealing.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/polyhedral-sundial-replica.html">Polyhedral Sundial replica</a><p><p>This is a replica of an original polyhedral sundial created by Stefano Buonsignori in Florence in 1587, held in the Museo Galileo in Florence.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/divine-comedy.html">The Divine Comedy</a> Dante, (1757)<p><p>Dante’s love for astronomy pervaded this epic poem. Not by accident did he bring each of the three volumes to a close with the word “stelle,” or star.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/ecstatic-journey-through-heavens.html">Ecstatic Journey through the Heavens</a> Kircher, Athanasius (1660)<p><p>Six chief world systems were debated in Galileo’s world: • Ptolemaic: All planets revolve around the central Earth. Geocentric. • Platonic: Like the Ptolemaic, except switches the positions of Venus and Mercury. Geocentric. • Cappellan or Egyptian: Venus and Mercury revolve around the Sun.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/nuremberg-chronicle.html">The Nuremberg Chronicle</a> Schedel, Hartmann (1493)<p><p>In the most lavishly illustrated book of the 1400’s, solid spheres ceaselessly turn, carrying the planets and filling the universe between the outermost heaven and the central Earth.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/almagest-ed-regiomontanus.html">Almagest, ed. Regiomontanus</a> Ptolemy, Claudius (1496)<p><p>Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaios) lived in Alexandria, Egypt, in the second century. Ptolemy’s technical work on astronomy, originally written in Greek, was titled Almagest (“The Greatest”) by its Arabic translators.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/astronomical-journal.html">Astronomical Journal</a> Brahe, Tycho (1586)<p><p>On the Island of Hven, Tycho Brahe built a Renaissance research center called Uraniborg, “City of the Stars.” The first book printed on Tycho’s printing press at Uraniborg displays his motto, “looking up, I look down.” That motto symbolized his aim of coordinating the study of astronomy,...</p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/illustration-and-description-incomparably-great-comet.html">Illustration and Description of the Incomparably Great Comet</a> (1680)<p><p>The great comet of 1680 illumines the sky above Nuremberg. One person among the onlooking crowd observes through a hand-held telescope. This was the first comet to be discovered by a telescope. Gottfried Kirch, a German astronomer, first saw it on November 14, 1680.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/conversation-galileo’s-starry-messenger.html">Conversation on Galileo’s Starry Messenger</a> Kepler, Johann (1611)<p><p>“I thank you because you were the first one, and practically the only one, to have complete faith in my assertions.” – Galileo In this public letter, Kepler expressed support for Galileo’s telescopic discoveries.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/divine-plato.html">The Divine Plato</a> Plato, (1491)<p><p>In his dialog entitled The Timaeus, Plato taught that the cosmos is constructed from regular geometrical figures known as the Pythagorean solids. Wherever one finds an emphasis upon mathematical demonstrations in science, one may credit Plato and the Pythagoreans.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/works-hesiod.html">Works of Hesiod</a> Hesiod, (1559)<p><p>In Works and Days, the poet Hesiod, a roughly contemporary of Homer, compiled guidelines for conducting life and forecasting the weather according to the stars.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/three-comets-1618.html">On the Three Comets of 1618</a> Grassi, Oratio (1619)<p><p>In 1618, three comets appeared, visible to the unaided eye. These were the first comets to be observed with the telescope. Grassi was the leading astronomer in Rome and a professor at the Rome College (Collegio Romano).</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/letters-sunspots.html">Letters on Sunspots</a> Galileo, (1613)<p><p>In a 1611 book published by the Academy of the Lynx, the Jesuit astronomer Christoph Scheiner argued that sunspots are little planets circling the Sun like Venus. Galileo answered Scheiner with this book.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/rose-orsini.html">The Rose of Orsini</a> Scheiner, Christoph (1630)<p><p>Scheiner, a Jesuit astronomer, eventually published the definitive work of the 17th century on sunspots, in which he accepted Galileo’s argument that sunspots “move like ships” on the surface of the Sun.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/two-worlds-namely-major-and-minor.html">On the Two Worlds, namely the Major and the Minor</a> Fludd, Robert (1617-1621)<p><p>For Robert Fludd, the universe is a monochord, its physical structure unintelligible without an understanding of music. In another section of the book, Fludd depicts the universe as a Temple of Music.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/wonderful-machines-far-west.html">Wonderful Machines of the Far West</a> Schreck, Johann (1830)<p><p>Schreck helped Galileo show the telescope to the Medici family and others in Rome. Once he arrived in China, he wrote this work on engineering in Chinese.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/star-viewer.html">Star Viewer</a> Schickard, William (1698)<p><p>Schickard, a friend of Kepler’s, designed this planisphere or “astroscopium” to calculate the positions of the stars for any day and hour of the year. Schickard also devised a calculating machine to produce astronomical tables according to Kepler’s laws.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/astronomical-calendar-1476.html">Astronomical Calendar, 1476</a> Regiomontanus, (1476)<p><p>In this book, Regiomontanus predicted the positions of the Sun and Moon for 40 years. He designed a sundial to work independently of one’s latitude, and a volvelle, or circular dial, to locate the position and phase of the Moon according to date and time.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/discovery-new-world-moon.html">A Discovery of a New World... in the Moon</a> Wilkins, John (1684)<p><p>In this book, first published in 1638, Wilkins defended the Copernican and Galilean idea that the Earth is a planet by establishing analogies with the Moon.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/cosmography-1545.html">Cosmography, 1545</a> Apian, Peter (1545)<p><p>In this introduction to astronomy and geography, the Moon lies embedded within a solid sphere carrying it around the Earth once a month. The solid sphere explains why the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/harmony-universe.html">Harmony of the Universe</a> Kepler, Johann (1619)<p><p>In this work, Kepler integrated theoretical astronomy and music, showing that the motions of the planets employ the same numerical ratios as the most harmonious musical scales.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/appearances-sky.html">Appearances of the Sky</a> Aratus, (1547)<p><p>Aratus, a Greek scientist and poet of the 3rd century B.C.E., offered practical advice for predicting the weather by learning to recognize the seasonal appearances of constellations.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/workes-chaucer.html">Workes, Chaucer</a> Chaucer, (1598)<p><p>Chaucer’s astronomical knowledge, like Dante’s, was anything but casual; in addition to his stories, this volume also contains his detailed technical manual for use of the astrolabe.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/theater-world.html">Theater of the World</a> Gallucci, Giovanni Paolo (1588)<p><p>Gallucci, a Venetian scholar, was interested in astronomical instruments, both physical and on paper. The “Theater of the World” features a parade of rotating wheels, or “volvelles,” descendants of the astrolabe.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/almagest-ed-reinhold.html">Almagest, ed. Reinhold</a> Ptolemy, Claudius (1549)<p><p>Erasmus Reinhold, a professor at Wittenberg who was sympathetic to Copernicus, published the first Greek edition of Ptolemy’s Almagest.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/principles-astronomy.html">Principles of Astronomy</a> Naibod, Valentin (1580)<p><p>This Copernican cosmic section, the first published in Italy, appears in a sympathetic account, known to Tycho and to Kepler, which may have influenced Galileo. Naibod was a professor of mathematics at Padua who likely studied with Erasmus Reinhold in Wittenberg.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/comets.html">On Comets</a> Hevelius, Johann (1668)<p><p>The frontispiece shows three views of the paths of comets: the Aristotelian theory that they consist of vapors beneath the Moon (left); Kepler’s theory that comets move in straight lines (right); and Hevelius’ view that they originate in the outer regions and descend in a parabolic trajectory...</p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/discourse-floating-bodies.html">Discourse on Floating Bodies</a> Galileo, (1612)<p><p>To provide entertainment at a dinner held by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Galileo debated the Aristotelian physicist Lodovico delle Columbe on the topic of floating bodies. Galileo employed Archimedes’ mathematical analysis.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/meteorology-1556.html">Meteorology, 1556</a> Aristotle, (1556)<p><p>In a discussion of optical effects of the atmosphere, Aristotle here addresses the formation of a halo around the Moon. This is one of the most interesting uses of mathematics in all of Aristotle’s writings.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/comets-years-1607-1618.html">On the Comets of the years 1607 & 1618</a> Kepler, Johann (1619)<p><p>In this minor work, Kepler offered an analysis of comets that agreed with Grassi’s.</p>
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<a href="exhibits/treatise-system-world.html">A Treatise of the System of the World</a> Newton, Isaac (1728)<p><p>Newton’s mathematical physics established an understanding of the dynamics of the solar system.</p></p> </td>
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<a href="exhibits/celestial-worlds-discoverd-or-conjectures-concerning-inhabitants-plants-and-productions.html">The Celestial Worlds Discover'd, or, Conjectures concerning the Inhabitants, Plants and Productions of the Worlds in the Planets</a> Huygens, Christiaan (1698)<p><p>In this translation of Huygens’ Kosmotheoros, Huygens took up questions of the habitability of other planets and the existence of extraterrestrial life. These topics were also considered by Kepler, Wilkins and other popular writers.</p></p> </td>
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