-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 0
/
Copy pathdevguide.lyx
24044 lines (17608 loc) · 384 KB
/
devguide.lyx
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
#LyX 2.3 created this file. For more info see http://www.lyx.org/
\lyxformat 544
\begin_document
\begin_header
\save_transient_properties true
\origin unavailable
\textclass book
\begin_preamble
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{3}
\usepackage{titlesec}
\titleformat{\part}
{\normalfont\sffamily\huge}
{\partname\ \thepart}{1em}{}
\titleformat{\chapter}[display]
{\normalfont\sffamily\huge}
{\chaptertitlename\ \thechapter}{20pt}{\Huge}
\titleformat{\section}
{\normalfont\sffamily\Large}
{\thesection}{1em}{}
\titleformat{\subsection}
{\normalfont\sffamily\large}
{\thesubsection}{1em}{}
\titleformat{\subsubsection}
{\normalfont\sffamily\normalsize}
{\thesubsubsection}{1em}{}
\usepackage{newtxtext}
\usepackage{titletoc}
\contentsmargin[1cm]{0cm}
\titlecontents{part}[0em]{\vskip12pt\bfseries\sffamily}
{\thecontentslabel\enspace}
{\hspace{1.05em}}
{ \hfill\contentspage}[\vskip 6pt]
\titlecontents{chapter}[0em]{\vskip12pt\bfseries\sffamily}
{\thecontentslabel\enspace}
{\hspace{1.05em}}
{ \hfill\contentspage}[\vskip 6pt]
\titlecontents{section}[1em]{\sffamily}
{\thecontentslabel\enspace}
{}
{\titlerule*[1pc]{.}\quad\contentspage}[\vskip 4pt]
\titlecontents{subsection}[2.7em]{\sffamily}
{\thecontentslabel\enspace}
{}
{\titlerule*[1pc]{.}\quad\contentspage}[\vskip 3pt]
\usepackage{listings}
\usepackage{color}
\definecolor{ltgry}{rgb}{0.95,0.95,0.95}
\definecolor{purplekeywords}{rgb}{0.75,0,0.75}
\definecolor{greycomments}{rgb}{0.5,0.5,0.5}
\definecolor{redstrings}{rgb}{0.64,0.08,0.08}
\lstset{backgroundcolor=\color{ltgry}}
\lstset{columns=fixed, basicstyle=\ttfamily, basewidth=0.55em}
\usepackage{pifont}
\newcommand{\xmark}{\ding{55}}
\end_preamble
\use_default_options true
\begin_modules
theorems-ams
eqs-within-sections
figs-within-sections
\end_modules
\maintain_unincluded_children false
\language english
\language_package default
\inputencoding auto
\fontencoding global
\font_roman "default" "Baskerville"
\font_sans "default" "Helvetica"
\font_typewriter "default" "Andale Mono"
\font_math "auto" "auto"
\font_default_family default
\use_non_tex_fonts false
\font_sc false
\font_osf false
\font_sf_scale 100 100
\font_tt_scale 80 80
\use_microtype false
\use_dash_ligatures false
\graphics default
\default_output_format default
\output_sync 0
\bibtex_command default
\index_command default
\paperfontsize 11
\spacing single
\use_hyperref true
\pdf_bookmarks true
\pdf_bookmarksnumbered false
\pdf_bookmarksopen false
\pdf_bookmarksopenlevel 1
\pdf_breaklinks false
\pdf_pdfborder true
\pdf_colorlinks false
\pdf_backref false
\pdf_pdfusetitle true
\papersize default
\use_geometry true
\use_package amsmath 1
\use_package amssymb 1
\use_package cancel 1
\use_package esint 1
\use_package mathdots 1
\use_package mathtools 1
\use_package mhchem 1
\use_package stackrel 1
\use_package stmaryrd 1
\use_package undertilde 1
\cite_engine basic
\cite_engine_type default
\biblio_style plain
\use_bibtopic false
\use_indices false
\paperorientation portrait
\suppress_date false
\justification true
\use_refstyle 1
\use_minted 0
\index Index
\shortcut idx
\color #008000
\end_index
\leftmargin 1in
\topmargin 1in
\rightmargin 1in
\bottommargin 1in
\secnumdepth 2
\tocdepth 1
\paragraph_separation indent
\paragraph_indentation default
\is_math_indent 0
\math_numbering_side default
\quotes_style english
\dynamic_quotes 0
\papercolumns 1
\papersides 1
\paperpagestyle default
\listings_params "language=Java,showspaces=false,showtabs=false,breaklines=true,showstringspaces=false,breakatwhitespace=true,escapeinside={(*@}{@*)},commentstyle={\color{greycomments}},keywordstyle={\color{purplekeywords}\bfseries},stringstyle={\color{redstrings}},basicstyle={\ttfamily},morekeywords={ var, fn, print,in }"
\tracking_changes false
\output_changes false
\html_math_output 0
\html_css_as_file 0
\html_be_strict false
\end_header
\begin_body
\begin_layout Title
\family sans
\emph on
\begin_inset Graphics
filename Figures/morphologo.pdf
width 3.5in
\end_inset
\begin_inset Newline newline
\end_inset
Developer Guide
\begin_inset Newline newline
\end_inset
Version 0.6.2
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset CommandInset toc
LatexCommand tableofcontents
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Chapter
Introduction
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
This Developer Guide aims to assist users at all levels who want to learn
more about programming with
\emph on
morpho
\emph default
, including those who are interested in extending or improving
\emph on
\emph default
the program and contributing to the project.
It is divided into several sections:—
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Part
\begin_inset CommandInset ref
LatexCommand ref
reference "part:The-morpho-language"
plural "false"
caps "false"
noprefix "false"
\end_inset
introduces the
\emph on
morpho
\emph default
language in some detail, as well as providing information on data types.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Part
\begin_inset CommandInset ref
LatexCommand ref
reference "part:Tools-for-morpho"
plural "false"
caps "false"
noprefix "false"
\end_inset
describes the
\emph on
morpho
\emph default
debugger and profiler which are tools to help programmers write better
\emph on
morpho
\emph default
code.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Part
\begin_inset CommandInset ref
LatexCommand ref
reference "part:Extending-morpho"
plural "false"
caps "false"
noprefix "false"
\end_inset
discusses how
\emph on
morpho
\emph default
can be extended.
Modules can be written in morpho and or in C or similar languages.
The
\emph on
morpho
\emph default
C API is described.
Information about packaging modules and extensions and distributing them
is also included.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Part
\begin_inset CommandInset ref
LatexCommand ref
reference "part:Internals"
plural "false"
caps "false"
noprefix "false"
\end_inset
provides documentation of
\emph on
morpho's
\emph default
internals for those interested in contributing to the source.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\series bold
Note that the Guide remains under construction, and we anticipate adding
additional information in future releases as we approach morpho v1.0.0.
We welcome your feedback on what is most helpful in the below as well as
what is missing.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Part
The
\emph on
morpho
\emph default
language
\begin_inset CommandInset label
LatexCommand label
name "part:The-morpho-language"
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Chapter
Design goals
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
is a dynamic language oriented toward scientific computing that was designed
with the following goals:
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
\series bold
Familiar.
\series default
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
uses syntax similar to other C-family languages.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
\series bold
Simple.
\series default
The syntax has been kept simple, so there are only a few things to learn;
nonetheless, the features provided are very expressive, enabling the programmer
to express intent cleanly.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
\series bold
Fast.
\series default
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
programs run as efficiently as other well-implemented dynamic languages
like wren, lua or python.
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
leverages numerical libraries like BLAS, LAPACK, etc.
to provide good performance.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
\series bold
Class-based.
\series default
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
is highly object-oriented, which simplifies coding and enables reusability.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
\series bold
Extendable.
\series default
Functionality is easy to extend add via modules, which can be written in
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
or C and other compiled languages.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
This book is intended as a brief introduction to
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
, illustrating its features and providing some advice on how to use them
best.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Note Note
status collapsed
\begin_layout Section
Inspirations
\end_layout
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
is inspired by a number of other languages, to which we briefly compare
and contrast
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
:
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Like
\emph on
Lua
\emph default
,
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
is primarily a scripting language with a simple syntax that is embeddable
in other programs.
The range of provided types in
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
is somewhat richer than Lua, and oriented toward object oriented programming.
In Lua the primary construct is the Table, which can be used to emulate
object oriented programming, but
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
provides explicit OOP constructs.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Like
\emph on
Dylan
\emph default
,
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
is object oriented and provides efficient multiple dispatch using similar
techniques.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Like
\emph on
Julia
\emph default
,
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
provides efficient multiple dispatch, but centralizes object oriented programmi
ng.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Like
\emph on
C
\emph default
,
\emph on
C++
\emph default
,
\emph on
Java
\emph default
and even
\emph on
JavaScript
\emph default
,
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
uses the C family code block style and similar notation for function definition
s (and class definitions for object-oriented C family languages).
In contrast to most C family languages, semicolons are almost entirely
optional.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Like all modern dynamic languages,
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
is inspired by
\emph on
Smalltalk
\emph default
although more in its commitment to programmer's agency, and programming
as a fun and exploratory activity than through the syntax.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Itemize
Many languages, including
\emph on
Lua
\emph default
,
\emph on
Java
\emph default
(historically),
\emph on
Smalltalk
\emph default
,
\emph on
Python, Wren
\emph default
,
\emph on
Lox
\emph default
,
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
uses a bytecode compiler and virtual machine to provide good performance.
Unlike most of these languages, the VM is a register machine rather than
a stack machine.
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Chapter
Variables and types
\begin_inset CommandInset label
LatexCommand label
name "chap:Variables-and-types"
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
Like many languages,
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
allows the programmer to define
\emph on
variables
\emph default
to contain pieces of information of
\emph on
values
\emph default
.
A variable is created using the
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
var
\end_layout
\end_inset
keyword, which is followed by the variable name
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset listings
inline false
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
var a
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\noindent
Variable names must begin with an alphabetical character or the underscore
character
\family typewriter
_
\family default
, and may consist of any combination of alphanumeric characters or underscores
thereafter.
Variable names are case sensitive, so
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\noindent
\begin_inset listings
inline false
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
var a
\end_layout
\begin_layout Plain Layout
var A
\end_layout
\end_inset
each refer to distinct variables.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\noindent
After creating a variable, you may immediately store information in it by
providing an
\emph on
initializer,
\emph default
which can be any value
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset listings
inline false
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
var i = 1
\end_layout
\begin_layout Plain Layout
var str =
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset
Hello
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Section
Types
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\emph on
Morpho
\emph default
is a dynamically typed language: Every value has a definite type, and Morpho
is always able to tell what type it is, but variables may generally contain
values of any type and functions or methods can accept arguments of any
type.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
There are a number of basic types in Morpho:
\end_layout
\begin_layout Description
nil is a special value that represents the
\emph on
absence
\emph default
of information and is different from any other value.
Unless an initializer is provided, Morpho variables initially contain
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
nil
\end_layout
\end_inset
after declaration.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Description
Bool values contain either
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
true
\end_layout
\end_inset
or
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
false
\end_layout
\end_inset
.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Description
Int values contain 32 bit signed integer numbers.
An integer constant is written intuitively, e.g.
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
1
\end_layout
\end_inset
,
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
50
\end_layout
\end_inset
,
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
1000
\end_layout
\end_inset
and may include a negative sign
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
-100
\end_layout
\end_inset
.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Description
Float values contain double precision floating point numbers.
You can write numeric constants either using a decimal
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
1.5
\end_layout
\end_inset
or in scientific notation, e.g.
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
1e10
\end_layout
\end_inset
,
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
1.6e-19
\end_layout
\end_inset
or
\begin_inset listings
inline true
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
6.625e26
\end_layout
\end_inset
.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
In addition to these basic types, Morpho provides a rich collection of
\series bold
objects
\series default
.
Discuss immutability i.e.
cannot be changed after creation, or not
\end_layout
\begin_layout Section
Strings
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
Strings are sequences of unicode UTF8 encoded characters.
You specify a literal string using double quotes
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset listings
inline false
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
var h =
\begin_inset Quotes eld
\end_inset
Hello
\begin_inset Quotes erd
\end_inset
\end_layout
\end_inset
Literal strings can contain a number of special characters, which are introduced
by a backslash character as in the table below
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\align center
\begin_inset Tabular
<lyxtabular version="3" rows="10" columns="2">
<features tabularvalignment="middle">
<column alignment="center" valignment="top">
<column alignment="left" valignment="top">
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Code
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="left" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Character
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\family typewriter
\backslash
f
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="left" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Form feed
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\family typewriter
\backslash
n
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Newline
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\family typewriter
\backslash
r
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text